Urological Cancer and Health Education

1. kidney cancer Health Education:

A risk factor is anything that increases a person’s chance of developing cancer. Although risk factors often influence the development of cancer, most do not directly cause cancer. Some people with several risk factors never develop cancer, while others with no known risk factors do. Knowing your risk factors and talking about them with your doctor may help you make more informed lifestyle and health care choices.

The following factors may raise a person’s risk of developing kidney cancer:

Smoking: Smoking tobacco doubles the risk of developing kidney cancer. It is believed to cause about 30% of kidney cancers in men and about 25% in women.

Gender: Men are 2 to 3 times more likely to develop kidney cancer than women.

Race: Black people have higher rates of kidney cancer.

Age: Kidney cancer is typically found in adults and is usually diagnosed between the ages of 50 and 70.

Nutrition and weight: Research has often shown a link between kidney cancer and obesity.

High blood pressure: Men with high blood pressure, also called hypertension, may be more likely to develop kidney cancer.

Overuse of certain medications: Painkillers containing phenacetin have been banned in the United States since 1983 because of their link to transitional cell carcinoma. Diuretics and analgesic pain pills, such as aspirin, acetaminophen, and ibuprofen, have also been linked to kidney cancer.

Exposure to cadmium: Some studies have shown a connection between exposure to the metallic element cadmium and kidney cancer: Working with batteries, paints, or welding materials may increase a person’s risk as well. This risk is even higher for smokers who have been exposed to cadmium.

Chronic kidney disease: People who have decreased kidney function but don’t yet need dialysis may be at higher risk for the development of kidney cancer.

Long-term dialysis: People who have been on dialysis for a long time may develop cancerous cysts in their kidneys. These growths are usually found early and can often be removed before the cancer spreads.

Family history of kidney cancer. People who have a strong family history of kidney cancer may have an increased risk of developing the disease. This can include individuals with first-degree relatives, such as a parent, brother, sister, or child. Risk also increases if other extended family members have also been diagnosed with kidney cancer, including grandparents, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, grandchildren, and cousins. Specific factors in family members may increase the risk of a hereditary kidney cancer disorder, including diagnosis at an early age, rare types of kidney cancer, cancer in both kidneys (bilaterality), more than 1 tumor in the same kidney (multifocality), and other types of benign or malignant tumors.

If you are concerned kidney cancer may run in your family, it is important to get an accurate family history and to share the results with your doctor. By understanding your family history, you and your doctor can take steps to reduce your risk and be proactive about your health.

Genetic conditions and kidney cancer
Although kidney cancer can run in families, inherited kidney cancers linked to a single, inherited gene are uncommon, accounting for 5% or less of kidney cancers. Over a dozen unique genes that increase the risk of developing kidney cancer have been found, and many are linked to specific genetic syndromes. Most of these conditions are associated with a specific type of kidney cancer (see the Introduction).

Finding a specific genetic syndrome in a family can help a person and their doctor develop an appropriate cancer screening plan and, in some cases, help determine the best treatment options. Only genetic testing can determine whether a person has a genetic mutation. Most experts strongly recomm

2. Prostate cancer Health Education:

The ultimate goal is to prevent men from developing prostate cancer. Although significant progress has been made and genetic and environmental risk factors for prostate cancer have been identified, the evidence is not strong enough for conclusive recommendations on prostate cancer prevention.

Given that prostate cancer feeds on testosterone and DHT (dihydrotestosterone), there have been multiple large studies trying to lower DHT in men to prevent prostate cancer. These studies have investigated finasteride and dutasteride, which lower DHT levels and are often used to treat men with the noncancerous condition BPH, have shown that these drugs may reduce the chances that a man will be diagnosed with prostate cancer. The Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial was one of the largest prostate cancer trials ever and involved more than 18,000 men followed for over a decade. This study showed that finasteride therapy reduced the risk that a man would be diagnosed with prostate cancer by 25%. The study did find a slightly higher rate of aggressive prostate cancers in men who took finasteride, which other studies have suggested may be due to artifact or greater ability to find more aggressive cancers due to a smaller prostate size (ie if you put 12 biopsy needs into a small prostate it is more likely to find cancer than if you put the 12 biopsies in a large prostate). Given that this agent is well tolerated, current recommendations call for a discussion about the risks and benefits of these agents in the prevention of prostate cancer and for treatment of other conditions, such as BPH.

Diet and lifestyle modifications have also been shown to reduce the risk of prostate cancer development and progression, and can help men with prostate cancer live longer and better lives.

Top 10 Considerations for Preventing Prostate Cancer

To understand how to prevent prostate cancer, one must first understand what causes it. There are four major factors that influence one’s risk for developing prostate cancer.

Age: The average age at diagnosis of prostate cancer in the United States is 69 years and after that age the chance of developing prostate cancer becomes more common than any other cancer in men or women.

Race: African-Americans are more likely to develop prostate cancer and have more than twice the risk of dying from it. Conversely, Asian men who live in Asia have the lowest risk; however when they migrate to the west, their risk increases.

Family history: A man with a father or brother who developed prostate cancer has a twofold-increased risk for developing it. This risk is further increased if the cancer was diagnosed at a younger age (less than 55 years of age) or affected three or more family members. You should discuss with your Doctor if you have a family history of not only prostate cancer, but also breast cancer, colon cancer, or pancreatic cancer.

Where you live: The risk of developing prostate cancer for men who live in rural China is 2% and for men in the United States is 17%. When Chinese men move to the western culture, their risk increases substantially; men who live north of 40 degrees latitude (north of Philadelphia, Columbus, Ohio, and Provo, Utah) have the highest risk for dying from prostate cancer of any men in the United States – this effect appears to be mediated by inadequate sunlight during three months of the year which reduces vitamin D levels.

Unfortunately, the factors above are difficult or impossible to change, however, there are many things that men can do to reduce or delay their risk of developing prostate cancer. Why is prostate cancer so common in the Western culture and much less so in Asia, and why when Asian men migrate to western countries the risk of prostate cancer increases over time? We believe the major risk factor is diet – foods that produce oxidative damage to DNA. What can you do about it to prevent or delay the onset of the disease?

1. Eat fewer calories and exercise more so that you maintain a healthy weight.

2. Try to keep the amount of fat you get from red meat and dairy products to a minimum.

3. Watch your calcium intake. Do not take supplemental doses far above the recommended daily allowance. Some calcium is OK, but avoid taking more than 1,200 mg per day.

4. Eat more fish – evidence from several studies suggest that fish can help protect against prostate cancer because they have “good fat,” particularly omega-3 fatty acids. Avoid trans fatty acids (for example, in margarine).

5. Incorporate cooked tomatoes (prepared with olive oil), which may be beneficial, and cruciferous vegetables (like broccoli and cauliflower) into many of your weekly meals. Soy-based foods and green tea are also potential dietary components that may be helpful.

6. Avoid smoking for many reasons. Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all.

7. Seek medical treatment for stress, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, and depression. Treating these conditions may save your life and will improve your survivorship with prostate cancer.

8. Avoid over-supplementation with megavitamins. While a multivitamin is not likely to be harmful, you probably don’t need it if you follow a healthy diet with lots of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fish, and healthy oils. Ask your doctor about herbal supplements as some may harm you or interfere with treatment.

9. Relax and enjoy life. Reducing stress in the workplace and home will improve your survivorship and lead to a longer, happier life.

10. For men 45 or older (40 or older for African American men or those with a family history of prostate cancer), discuss the risks and benefits of screening with a PSA test and, if indicated, a rectal examination, with your doctor.

3. Bladder Cancer Health Education

Bladder Cancer Risk Factors
A risk factor is anything that affects your chance of getting a disease such as cancer. Different cancers have different risk factors. You can change some risk factors, like smoking or weight ; others, like your age or family history, you can’t.

But having a risk factor, or even many, does not mean that you will get the disease. Many people with risk factors never get bladder cancer, while others with this disease may have few or no known risk factors.

Still, it’s important to know about the risk factors for bladder cancer because there may be things you can do that might lower your risk of getting it. If you're at higher risk because of certain factors, you might be helped by tests that could find it early, when treatment is most likely to be effective.

Many risk factors make a person more likely to develop bladder cancer.

Risk factors you can change
Smoking: Smoking is the most important risk factor for bladder cancer. People who smoke are at least 3 times as likely to get bladder cancer as people who don't. Smoking causes about half of all bladder cancers in both men and women.

If you or someone you know smokes and would like help quitting, see our Guide to Quitting Smoking, or call us at 1-800-227-2345 for more information.

Workplace exposures: Certain industrial chemicals have been linked with bladder cancer. Chemicals called aromatic amines, such as benzidine and beta-naphthylamine, which are sometimes used in the dye industry, can cause bladder cancer.

Workers in other industries that use certain organic chemicals also may have a higher risk of bladder cancer. Industries carrying higher risks include makers of rubber, leather, textiles, and paint products as well as printing companies. Other workers with an increased risk of developing bladder cancer include painters, machinists, printers, hairdressers (probably because of heavy exposure to hair dyes), and truck drivers (likely because of exposure to diesel fumes).

Cigarette smoking and workplace exposures can act together to cause bladder cancer. So, people who smoke who also work with cancer-causing chemicals have an especially high risk of bladder cancer.

Certain medicines or herbal supplements: According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), use of the diabetes medicine pioglitazone (Actos®) is linked with an increased risk of bladder cancer. The risk seems to get higher when higher doses are used.

Dietary supplements containing aristolochic acid (mainly in herbs from the Aristolochia family) have been linked with an increased risk of urothelial cancers, including bladder cancer.

Arsenic in drinking water: Arsenic in drinking water has been linked with a higher risk of bladder cancer in some parts of the world. The chance of being exposed to arsenic depends on where you live and whether you get your water from a well or from a public water system that meets the standards for low arsenic content. For most Americans, drinking water isn't a major source of arsenic.

Not drinking enough fluids: People who drink a lot of fluids, especially water, each day tend to have lower rates of bladder cancer. This might be because they empty their bladders more often, which could keep chemicals from lingering in their bladder.

Risk factors you cannot change: Race and ethnicity Whites are about twice as likely to develop bladder cancer as African Americans and Hispanics. Asian Americans and American Indians have slightly lower rates of bladder cancer. The reasons for these differences are not well understood.

Age: The risk of bladder cancer increases with age. About 9 out of 10 people with bladder cancer are older than 55.

Can Bladder Cancer Be Prevented?
There is no sure way to prevent bladder cancer. Some risk factors, like age, gender, race, and family history can’t be controlled. But there might be things you can do that could help lower your risk.

Don’t smoke: Smoking is thought to cause about half of all bladder cancers. (This includes any type of smoking -- cigarettes, cigars, or pipes. ) If you're thinking about quitting smoking and need help, call the American Cancer Society for information and support at 1-800-227-2345.

Limit exposure to certain chemicals in the workplace: Workers in industries that use certain organic chemicals have a higher risk of bladder cancer. Workplaces, where these chemicals are commonly used, include the rubber, leather, printing materials, textiles, and paint industries. If you work in a place where you might be exposed to such chemicals, be sure to follow good work safety practices.

Some chemicals found in certain hair dyes might also increase risk, so it’s important for hairdressers and barbers who are exposed to these products regularly to use them safely. (Most studies have not found that personal use of hair dyes increases bladder cancer risk.) For more on this, see Hair Dyes.

Some research has suggested that people exposed to diesel fumes in the workplace might also have a higher risk of bladder cancer (as well as some other cancers), so limiting this exposure might be helpful.

Drink plenty of liquids: There's evidence that drinking a lot of fluids – mainly water – might lower a person’s risk of bladder cancer.

Eat lots of fruits and vegetables: Some studies have suggested that a diet high in fruits and vegetables might help protect against bladder cancer, but other studies have not found this. Still, eating a healthy diet has been shown to have many benefits, including lowering the risk of some other types of cancer.

4: Testicular Cancer Health Education:

Risk Factors for Testicular Cancer
A risk factor is anything that changes your chance of getting a disease such as cancer. Different cancers have different risk factors. Some risk factors, like smoking and diet, can be changed. Others, like a person’s age or family history, can’t be changed.

But having a risk factor, or even many, does not mean that you will get the disease. Just as not having risk factors doesn’t mean you won’t get the disease. And some people who get the disease may not have had any known risk factors. Even if a person with testicular cancer has a risk factor, it’s often very hard to know how much that risk factor contributed to the cancer.

Scientists have found few risk factors that make someone more likely to develop testicular cancer. Most boys and men with testicular cancer don't have any of the known risk factors. Risk factors for testicular cancer include:

An undescended testicle
Family history of testicular cancer
HIV infection
Carcinoma in situ of the testicle
Having had testicular cancer before
Being of a certain race/ethnicity
Body size
Undescended testicle

One of the main risk factors for testicular cancer is a condition called cryptorchidism, or undescended testicle(s). This means that one or both testicles fail to move from the abdomen (belly) into the scrotum before birth. Males with cryptorchidism are many times more likely to get testicular cancer than those with normally descended testicles.

Normally, the testicles develop inside the abdomen of the fetus and they go down (descend) into the scrotum before birth. But in about 3% of boys, the testicles do not make it all the way down before the child is born. Sometimes one or both testicles stay in the abdomen. In other cases, the testicles start to descend but stay in the groin area.

Most of the time, undescended testicles continue moving down into the scrotum during the child’s first year of life. If the testicle hasn't descended by the time a child is a year old, it probably isn’t going to do it on its own. Sometimes a surgical procedure known as orchiopexy is needed to move the testicle down into the scrotum.

The risk of testicular cancer might be a little higher for men whose testicle stayed in the abdomen as opposed to one that has descended at least partway. If cancer does develop, it's usually in the undescended testicle, but about 1 out of 4 cases occur in the normally descended testicle. Because of this, some doctors conclude that cryptorchidism doesn’t actually cause testicular cancer, but that there's something else that leads to both testicular cancer and abnormal positioning of one or both testicles.

Orchiopexy may reduce the risk of testicular cancer if it's done when a child is younger, but it's not as clear if it's helpful if the child is older. The best time to do this surgery is not clear. Experts in the United States recommend that orchiopexy be done soon after the child’s first birthday for reasons that aren't related to cancer (such as fertility).

Family history

Having a father or brother with testicular cancer increases the risk that you will get it, too. But only a small number of testicular cancers occur in families. Most men with testicular cancer do not have a family history of the disease.

Klinefelter's syndrome is an inherited disease that's also linked to an increased risk of testicular cancer.

HIV infection

Some evidence has shown that men infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), particularly those with AIDS, are at increased risk. No other infections have been shown to increase testicular cancer risk.

Carcinoma in situ

This condition, described in What Is Testicular Cancer? often doesn’t cause a lump in the testicles or any other symptoms. It isn’t clear how often carcinoma in situ (CIS) in the testicles progresses to cancer. In some cases, CIS is found in men who have a testicular biopsy to evaluate infertility or have a testicle removed because of cryptorchidism. Doctors in Europe are more likely than the doctors in this country to look for CIS. This may be wh

5. Penile Cancer Health Education:

Risk Factors and Prevention

The following factors can increase the risk of developing penile cancer:

HPV infection. The most important risk factor for penile cancer is infection with this virus. Sexual activity with a person who has HPV is the most common way someone gets HPV. There are different types of HPV, called strains. Research links some HPV strains more strongly with certain types of cancers. You can reduce your risk of HPV infection by limiting your number of sex partners, because having many partners increases the risk of HPV. Using a condom cannot fully protect you from HPV during sex. There are vaccines available to protect you from some HPV strains.

Smoking: Smoking tobacco may contribute to the development of penile cancer, especially in people who also have HPV.

Age: Penile cancer is most common in men older than 50. In the United States, the average age of diagnosis for penile cancer is about 68 years. However, black men and Hispanic men are more likely to be diagnosed earlier, at an average age of 60. In the United States, about 80% of men with penile cancer are at least 55 when diagnosed. Worldwide, about 20% of men diagnosed with penile cancer are younger than 40.

Phimosis: Phimosis occurs when the foreskin becomes tight and is difficult to retract. People with phimosis have an increased risk of developing penile cancer. This is most likely because those with phimosis are less likely to be able to thoroughly clean the penis. Poor penile hygiene increases the chances of chronic inflammation, which can lead to cancer. There are surgical and nonsurgical treatments available for phimosis. It can also be prevented with circumcision.

Smegma: Smegma is a thick substance that can build up under the foreskin. It is caused by dead skin cells, bacteria, and oily secretions from the skin. Smegma was previously believed to increase the chances of developing penile cancer, but there is very little evidence supporting that belief. If smegma does cause cancer, called carcinogenic, that would explain the connection between phimosis and penile cancer. Regardless, good penile hygiene is recommended. Those who are uncircumcised should pull back, or retract, the foreskin and thoroughly wash the penis on a regular basis. This is to make sure that smegma does not irritate the penis.

HIV/AIDS: Infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a risk factor for penile cancer. HIV is the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). When a person has HIV, the immune system is less able to fight off early-stage cancer.

Psoriasis treatment: The drug psoralen combined with ultraviolet (UV) light may increase the risk of developing penile cancer.

Prevention: Different factors cause different types of cancer. Researchers continue to look into what factors cause penile cancer, including ways to prevent it. Although there is no proven way to completely prevent penile cancer, you may be able to lower your risk. Talk with your health care team for more information about your personal risk of cancer.

Circumcision: Circumcision before adulthood appears to provide some protection from penile cancer. People who have been circumcised in their youth have a much lower rate of penile cancer, and epidermoid/squamous cell carcinoma of the penis almost never occurs in such men. However, it is important to note that circumcision reduces but does not eliminate the risk of penile cancer.